1. 所有長牙的兒童, 每天使用少量含氟牙膏刷牙兩次
2. 三歲以下. 每次使用一個米粒大小的牙膏, 用塗的, 不用刷的
3. 三歲以上, 學齡前(5-6歲)每次使用一個豌豆大小的牙膏
4. 年齡較大的學齡前兒童可以使用略多於“豌豆大小”的量
5. 六至18歲的兒童——至少每週使用
5. 家用局部氟化劑(濃度高達百萬分之 5000)建議使用在六歲以上且患齲齒風險較高的患者
2021 年對比較氟化物的隨機試驗進行薈萃分析
在安慰劑或不治療的情況下,使用局部氟化物(主要是氟化物清漆)在兩年內可使表面蛀牙減少約 1 次(蛀牙、缺失或填充的乳牙表面增量的平均差異為 -0.94,95% CI -1.74 至 -0.34;13 項試驗,5733 名受試者)[105
]。此外,在高風險人群或環境中,局部氟化物可降低發生齲齒的可能性(絕對風險差 -7%,相對風險 0.80,95% CI 0.66-0.95),主要是在 ≤2 歲的兒童中。表明特定頻率(例如,每三個月與每六個月)或方案(例如,單次施用與兩週內多次施用)優於另一個的證據是有限的[25,106-108
]。
局部使用
氟化物似乎是安全的。在一項對四項隨機試驗(414 名受試者)進行的薈萃分析中,將氟化物清漆與安慰劑或不治療進行比較,發現氟中毒和其他不良事件的發生率相似 [105
]。此外,在一項針對 6 名幼兒(12 至 15 個月大)的藥代動力學研究中,在使用 5% 氟化鈉(2.26% 氟化物)清漆後 5 小時內測量尿氟化物,平均估計殘留氟化物為 20 mcg/kg,遠低於 5 mg/kg 的“可能中毒劑量”[109,110
]。
儘管有強有力的證據表明存在
氟化物由於氟化物的安全性和有效性,美國有一小部分人幾十年來一直反對使用氟化物,特別是水氟化物[
111 ]。此外,患者不願意接受診室局部氟化物應用似乎是一個日益嚴重的問題[
112 ]。儘管“氟化猶豫”的原因尚不清楚,但幼兒家長拒絕局部塗氟的理由包括:他們的孩子沒有患齲齒的風險,氟化物無效,其他預防齲齒的方法(例如減少糖的攝入)更可取,以及氟化物有害[113
]。
補充氟化物 —
氟化物如果根據氟化物攝入量和齲齒風險(
表 2)表明需要補充,則應從六個月大時開始(
表 3)[
104,114 ]。僅當孩子患齲齒的風險較高,其他含氟媒介(例如含氟牙膏、漱口水、清漆、凝膠)已被證明不足,並且家庭使用非氟化水、瓶裝水或加工水或不含氟化物的井水時,才需要補充氟化物[12,115,116
]。在美國,
疾病控制和預防中心提供有關社區水氟化的信息[
117]。
美國公共衛生服務部門建議預防齲齒的最佳社區飲用水濃度為 0.7 mg/L [
118 ]。
大多數瓶裝水產品的
氟化物含量可以忽略不計,儘管含量各不相同[
119 ]。除非製造商添加了氟化物,否則標籤上不包含氟化物含量[
12 ]。
飲用前的水處理可能會影響
氟化物濃度。使用反滲透系統和蒸餾裝置的水龍頭濾水器可大幅降低氟化物含量[
120-122 ]。大多數使用活性炭過濾器的“傾倒”裝置不會減少氟化物[
12,120,122,123 ]。水軟化器系統不會改變氟化物含量[
122,124,125 ]。
氟中毒 — 過量攝入
氟化物(通常每天超過 0.05 mg/kg)可導致氟中毒或牙釉質礦化不足[
126 ]。氟斑牙只有在牙齒發育過程中氟化物濃度過高時才會發生——通常持續到 48 個月大[
90 ]。根據全國健康與營養調查的數據,1999年至2002年間,6歲至39歲人群氟中毒患病率為23%[127
]。
輕度氟中毒的牙齒影響僅限於表面外觀(
圖6)。2010 年的一項系統回顧發現,輕度氟中毒不是一個美容問題 [
96 ]。輕度氟中毒表現為牙釉質出現白色斑點或花邊;中度氟中毒外觀呈不透明白色(
圖7);嚴重的氟中毒表現為棕色變色。嚴重氟中毒比輕度氟中毒少見,但它會使牙齒更容易磨損和斷裂[
128 ]。
過量氟化物消耗導致氟中毒的機制似乎是直接影響成釉細胞礦物質形成的速度,導致牙釉質基質破壞[
129]。氟中毒的嚴重程度通常會在青春期和成年早期減輕,尤其是較輕微的氟中毒[
130 ]。可以通過在生命早期限製過量氟化物消耗(例如通過吞嚥氟化牙膏或漱口水)和適當補充氟化物來預防氟中毒。
自來水可用於沖調粉狀或濃縮嬰兒配方奶粉[
12,131 ]。儘管在一項前瞻性研究中使用最佳氟化水沖調嬰兒配方奶粉與氟斑牙風險增加相關[132]
,但兒童可能會接觸多種
氟化物來源在嬰儿期(例如,復原果汁、含氟牙膏),很難確定某一特定來源的貢獻[
131 ]。
FLUORIDE
Use of fluorides is the primary means of preventing dental caries across all age groups. However, excessive
fluoride exposure in children can cause dental fluorosis, which typically presents as white streaks in the enamel of permanent teeth. Thus, fluoride should be used judiciously in children, particularly during the critical months of enamel maturation (up to 48 months), when the developing anterior permanent teeth are most vulnerable to excessive fluoride that can cause fluorosis [
90]. This is especially true for daily-use fluoride products, such as fluoride toothpaste.
Fluoride toothpaste — We suggest that all children with teeth have their teeth brushed twice daily for two minutes with small amounts of fluoride-containing toothpaste. The appropriate amount of toothpaste for infants and toddlers (younger than three years) is a "smear" (a very thin layer of toothpaste that covers less than half of the bristle surface of a child-size toothbrush (
picture 4)) or the size of a grain of rice [
12,39,91]. The amount of toothpaste should be increased to no more than a "pea-sized" (
picture 5) amount at age three years; older preschoolers can use slightly more than a "pea-sized" amount. It is important to provide counseling to caregivers to ensure that the appropriate amount of toothpaste is used; in a national survey (2013 to 2016), nearly 40 percent of children age three to six years used more toothpaste than recommended [
92]. To avoid swallowing
fluoride toothpaste, young children should not be given water to rinse after brushing [
12]. A systematic review of observational studies found limited evidence that although ingesting more than a pea-sized amount of fluoride-containing toothpaste is associated with increased risk of fluorosis [
93], most cases of fluorosis associated with fluoride toothpaste are mild, and not considered unattractive [
94-96].
There is no clear consensus among pediatric and dental groups as to when use of
fluoride toothpaste should be initiated [
97]. The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) and the American Dental Association (ADA) recommend fluoride toothpaste "for all children with teeth" [
12,91], whereas the American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry (AAPD) recommends fluoride toothpaste "for children less than two years of age at risk for dental caries" [
98]. The ADA provides a
list of toothpastes that meet ADA criteria for safety and effectiveness. All three organizations agree that use of fluoride toothpaste should be closely supervised by caregivers and that very small amounts should be used for infants and toddlers to reduce the risk of fluorosis in the permanent teeth. Given the cost and complexity of treating caries in young children and the lack of caries risk assessment tools that have been validated in this population, we suggest that all children with teeth should have their teeth brushed daily with small amounts of fluoride toothpaste dispensed by the parent or caregiver.
Use of
fluoride toothpaste reduces the risk of dental caries in children. A systematic review included one randomized trial (998 participants) that compared toothbrushing with fluoride-containing toothpaste and toothpaste without fluoride in reducing the caries increment (ie, the change from baseline in decayed and filled surfaces of the primary dentition) [
99]. Fluoride-containing toothpaste reduced the caries increment from 4.73 to 2.87 (mean difference of -1.86, 95% CI -2.5 to -1.2). In another systematic review, pooled analysis of eight observational and randomized studies (4187 patients), brushing with fluoride-containing toothpaste was associated with a small reduction in caries risk in children younger than six years who were at high risk of developing caries (standardized mean difference -0.25, 95% CI -0.36 to -0.14) [
97].
The optimal concentration of
fluoride is uncertain, but nearly all fluoride toothpaste in the United States has concentrations of approximately 1000 parts per million. In a network meta-analysis of 81 studies, concentrations of 1000 to 1500 parts per million (ppm) were associated with better outcomes than nonfluoride toothpaste; in indirect comparisons, outcomes were similar for concentrations of 1450 to 1500 ppm and concentrations of 1700 to 2000 ppm [
99]. None of the included trials reported on fluorosis. To maximize the benefits and minimize the risks of fluoride toothpaste, we suggest that children younger than three years begin brushing with fluoride toothpaste as soon as they develop teeth but that they use only a "smear" of toothpaste.
Topical fluoride application — We suggest that prescription-strength topical
fluoride be provided based on the results of a caries risk assessment (
table 2) rather than universal application of topical fluoride beginning at primary tooth eruption. Prescription-strength home-use topical fluoride agents (up to 5000 parts per million) are indicated only for patients ≥6 years old who are at increased risk of developing dental caries [
100]. Patients at low risk of developing caries can receive sufficient fluoride through fluoridated water and over-the-counter fluoridated toothpaste.
For children at increased risk of dental caries, topical application of
fluoride can be achieved in a number of ways [
100]:
●Professionally applied by health care practitioners (eg, dentist, dental hygienist, physician, nurse, or medical assistant depending on state practice acts) [
12]:
•For children <6 years – 2.26 percent
fluoride varnish applied at least every three to six months
•For children 6 to 18 years old – 1.23 percent acidulated phosphate
fluoride foam or gel for four minutes at least every three to six months; or 2.26 percent fluoride varnish at least every three to six months
Information and resources related to
fluoride varnish application in primary care practice are available through the
AAP.
●Self-applied at home (by prescription)
•For children 6 to 18 years old – 0.09 percent
fluoride mouth rinse at least weekly; or 0.5 percent fluoride gel or paste twice daily until the risk level is reduced (
table 2)
Systematic reviews and meta-analyses have found that over-the-counter
fluoride mouth rinse (0.05 percent fluoride [230 parts per million]) may be beneficial in preventing caries in children (>6 years) at high risk but does not provide any benefit beyond that of fluoride toothpaste for children at low risk of caries [
101,102].
There is a lack of consensus among professional groups regarding universal or risk-based topical
fluoride application. The ADA and the AAPD recommend risk-based application to avoid unnecessary use of resources in children who are at low risk of dental caries [
100,103]. The United States Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) and the AAP recommend universal application of fluoride varnish beginning at primary tooth eruption and continuing through age five years (USPSTF) or establishment of a dental home (AAP) to avoid missed opportunities for caries prevention [
12,104]. Although, we suggest a risk-based approach, we recognize that it is not always practical to perform individualized caries risk assessments.
In a 2021 meta-analysis of randomized trials comparing
fluoride with placebo or no treatment, the use of topical fluoride (mainly fluoride varnish) resulted in approximately one less surface tooth decay over a two-year period (mean difference in the increment of decayed, missing, or filled primary tooth surfaces of -0.94, 95% CI -1.74 to -0.34; 13 trials, 5733 participants) [
105]. In addition, in higher-risk populations or settings, topical fluoride reduced the likelihood of incident caries (absolute risk difference -7 percent, relative risk 0.80, 95% CI 0.66-0.95), predominantly in children ≤2 years of age. Evidence suggesting that a particular frequency (eg, every three versus every six months) or regimen (eg, single application versus multiple applications over a two-week period) is superior to another is limited [
25,106-108].
Topical
fluoride application appears to be safe. In a meta-analysis of four randomized trials (414 participants) comparing fluoride varnish with placebo or no treatment, the rates of fluorosis and other adverse events were similar [
105]. In addition, in a pharmacokinetic study in six toddlers (12 to 15 months of age) in whom urinary fluoride was measured for five hours after application of 5 percent sodium fluoride (2.26 percent fluoride) varnish, the average estimated retained fluoride was 20 mcg/kg, well below the "probable toxic dose" of 5 mg/kg [
109,110].
Despite strong evidence of
fluoride's safety and effectiveness, small groups of people in the United States have opposed fluoride use – particularly water fluoridation – for decades [
111]. In addition, patient reluctance to accept in-office topical fluoride applications appears to be a growing problem [
112]. Although the reasons for "fluoride hesitancy" are unclear, reasons provided by parents of young children for refusing topical fluoride application include that their children are not at risk for caries, that fluoride is not effective, that other means of caries prevention (eg, reduced sugar consumption) are preferable, and that fluoride is harmful [
113].
Fluoride supplementation —
Fluoride supplementation, if indicated based upon fluoride intake and caries risk (
table 2), should begin at six months of age (
table 3) [
104,114]. Fluoride supplementation is only necessary if the child is at high risk for caries, other fluoride vehicles (eg, fluoride toothpaste, mouth rinse, varnish, gel) have proved to be inadequate, and the family is using nonfluoridated water, bottled or processed waters, or well water that does not contain fluoride [
12,115,116]. In the United States, the
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention provide information about community water fluoridation [
117]. The United States Public Health Service recommends an optimal community drinking water concentration of 0.7 mg/L to prevent dental caries [
118].
Most bottled water products contain negligible levels of
fluoride, although the content varies [
119]. The fluoride content is not included on the label unless fluoride has been added by the manufacturer [
12].
The treatment of water before drinking may affect the
fluoride concentration. Faucet water filters that use reverse osmosis systems and distillation units substantially reduce the fluoride content [
120-122]. Most "pour through" devices using activated carbon filters do not reduce fluoride [
12,120,122,123]. Water softener systems do not alter fluoride content [
122,124,125].
Fluorosis — Excess
fluoride consumption (generally greater than 0.05 mg/kg per day) can cause fluorosis or hypomineralization of the dental enamel [
126]. Dental fluorosis occurs only when there is excessive fluoride concentration during tooth development – generally up to 48 months of age [
90]. According to data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, the prevalence of fluorosis among persons aged 6 to 39 years was 23 percent during 1999 to 2002 [
127].
The dental effect of mild fluorosis is limited to surface appearance (
picture 6). A 2010 systematic review found that mild fluorosis is not a cosmetic concern [
96]. Mild fluorosis is indicated by a white flecked or lacy appearance to the enamel; moderate fluorosis has an opaque white appearance (
picture 7); severe fluorosis is indicated by a brown discoloration. Severe fluorosis is much less common than mild fluorosis, but it can make the teeth more susceptible to wear and breakage [
128]. The mechanism by which excessive
fluoride consumption causes fluorosis appears to be a direct effect on the rate of mineral formation by ameloblasts, resulting in disruption of the enamel matrix [
129]. Fluorosis severity often diminishes during adolescence and young adulthood, particularly in its milder forms [
130]. Fluorosis can be prevented by limitation of excessive fluoride consumption (eg, through the swallowing of fluoridated toothpaste or mouth rinses) early in life and appropriate fluoride supplementation.
Tap water may be used to reconstitute powdered or concentrated infant formula [
12,131]. Although use of optimally fluoridated water to reconstitute powdered infant formula was associated with an increased risk of dental fluorosis in a prospective study [
132], children may be exposed to multiple sources of
fluoride during infancy (eg, reconstituted fruit juice, fluoride-containing toothpaste) and it is difficult to determine the contribution of one particular source [
131].